Pea Ridge #14 - Gen. Albert Pike prepares to move to Arkansas

Fort Gibson Historic Site

On February 15, 1862, 150 years ago today, Brigadier General Albert Pike began his efforts to bring reinforcements to the Confederate troops in the Boston Mountains from the Indian Territory of what is now Oklahoma.

Pike was then in command of Confederate forces in the Nations and had been instrumental in organizing a significant force there and pushing pro-Union Indian troops into Kansas. As the call for help went out from Northwest Arkansas, he prepared to move to the support of Price and McCulloch:

Gen. Albert Pike, CSA

...On February 25 I reached Cantonment Davis, near Fort Gibson, with Colonel Cooper's Choctaw and Chickasaw battalion, which had been encamped near the mouth of the Canadian. The same evening Col. D.N. McIntosh's regiment of Creeks arrived at the same point. I had in charge a large amount of coin and other moneys for the different Indian tribes, and found delegations of the Osages, Comanches, and Reserve Indians awaiting me, and the disposition of the moneys left unexpectedly in my hands, together with the dealings with the Indian tribes, detained me there three days. - Gen. Albert Pike, CSA, March 14, 1862.

Fort Gibson had long been an important landmark of the western frontier. Established in 1824, it was the "end point" of the Train of Tears and as such was the place where thousands of Native American families ended their long forced march to new land west of the Mississippi. It was occupied by Confederate troops early in the war and was the setting for several important councils with the various Indian nations.

Fort Gibson Historic Site

The Indians had entered the service of the Confederacy on the condition that they not be expected to cross the borders of their territory. In asking them to do so, Pike was making a major request. They were willing to do so, but insisted they receive their disbursements from the Confederate government first:

The Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Creeks refused to march until they were paid off, and as by their treaties with us they could not be taken out of the Indian country without their consent, I had no alternative but to submit. The payment of the Choctaws and Chickasaws occupied three days. - Gen. Albert Pike, CSA, March 14, 1862.


Pike and his men would play a significant role in the coming Battle of Pea Ridge. I will continue to post on the 150th anniversary of the Pea Ridge Campaign, with attention on the role of the Indian troops in it, over coming days, so be sure to check back often.  You can also read more at www.exploresouthernhistory.com/pearidgeindex.

You can learn more about historic Fort Gibson at www.exploresouthernhistory.com/okfortgibson.
 
 

Oklahoma to close Heavener Runestone State Park

Waterfall at Heavener Runestone State Park

I mention this here because it is a popular destination for residents in western Arkansas and is well know for its controversial carvings that some say prove Vikings visited Arkansas and Oklahoma centuries ago.

According to a report in the Poteau Daily News, Heavener Runestone State Park in Heavener is one of seven Oklahoma State Parks that will be closed by the state tourism and recreation department on August 15, 2011, as part of planned budget cuts. According to the newspaper's report, if the park is closed the land and improvements on it will automatically revert back to the original owners.

Heavener Runestone State Park attracts around 100,000 visitors a year, providing a significant economic impact on western Oklahoma. The loss of the tourism dollars would have a dramatic impact on the area.

Carvings on Heavener Runestone

The park takes its name from the famed Heavener Runestone, one of a series of strange rock carvings found in the area. Some say that the strange letters or runes spell out the word Glomesdal or Gnomesdal, which can be translated roughly to "Valley of Glome" or Valley of the Gnomes." I tend to favor the latter translation because the huge boulder is found in a beautiful ravine that brings to mind a place where the ancients say gnomes would have lived.

The issue of its authenticity is controversial. Some believe that the runestone offers proof that ancient Norse explorers made their way up the Mississippi and Arkansas Rivers as far as western Oklahoma. Others believe that the carving is a modern forgery, or possibly just a modern carving meant to add some mystique to the place.

Either way, the park is one of the most beautiful in Arkansas. The views from atop Poteau Mountain are spectacular and the spring blooms and waterfalls are stunning. To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/heavener1.

Rumors of War in Fort Smith, February 6, 1861

19th Century map of Indian Territory

Although Arkansas voters had not yet made their decision to convene a Secession Convention, the state like much of the South was caught in an outbreak of war fever.

News reached Fort Smith on the state's far western border 150 years ago tomorrow of a plan by troops from Texas, which had already seceded, to move on the U.S. Army posts in the Indian Territory of today's Oklahoma. The forts were important points of supply and defense that would critical in the war that everyone new was coming. The Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole and Cherokee Nations created a buffer zone between the Southern state of Texas and the Northern state of Kansas. Their control would likely lead to control of the Indian Territory as well.

The following account from Fort Smith appeared on the front page of the New York Herald on February 7, 1861:

IMPORTANT FROM THE INDIAN TERRITORY.

Threatened Attack on Forts Washita, Cobb and Arbuckle – The Little Rock, Ark., Arsenal Seized.

Fort Smith, Ar., Feb. 6, 1861.

Advices received today by the editor of the Thirty Fifth Parallel state that the Texans have threatened to take possession of Forts Washita, Cobb and Arbuckle, in the Indian Territory.

It is thought that the force at each of these stations is sufficient to protect them.

The conductor of the overland mail from Little Rock, Ark., reports that the arsenal there was taken possession of by State troops on Saturday evening last.

The rumors about Forts Washita, Cobb and Arbuckle was accurate, although no expedition for that purpose was yet underway.

To read about historic sites in Oklahoma, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/oklahoma1.

Talimena Scenic Drive explores historic Ouachita Mountains

The western Ouachita Mountains presented a major natural barrier to the southward advancement of Union troops along the Arkansas and Oklahoma (then the Indian Territories) border during the War Between the States.
The mountain range runs roughly east to west from near Little Rock into eastern Oklahoma. A series of commanding ridges and mountains, some of which are the highest points between the Appalachians and the Rockies, the Ouachitas served as a natural defense for Confederate forces during the war and also provided protection for Southern families and even guerrilla gangs that moved in and out of the mountains with impunity.

Now a major scenic area for visitors to the region, the mountains can be explored and accessed by way of the Talimena Scenic Drive, a national scenic byway that stretches 54 miles from Mena, Arkansas, across the border to Talihina, Oklahoma. As it winds its way along the very tops of the mountains, the drive passes not only some of the most beautiful scenery in the South, but an array of unique historic sites as well, many of them with Civil War ties.

Some of these include Queen Wilhelmina State Park and Rich Mountain Cemetery in Arkansas. The state park features numerous historic sites, including a mountain spring used by pioneer families at the time of the war. The first grave in the cemetery is said to have been that of a young girl who froze to death on a brutal winter's night during the war years. Her ghost supposedly still haunts the rugged terrain.

Along the Oklahoma stretch of the scenic byway are historic sites such as Horse Thief Spring and the Old Military or Fort Towson Road. The spring is was a water souce for Old West outlaws including that prowled the borderlands during the years after the Civil War. The Old Military Road, now marked by a park area with interpretive signs, was a major route through the mountains for Confederate forces and civilians.

The high elevations also provide welcome relief from the height of summer with cool breezes sweeping up the mountainsides to the overlooks and park areas along the Talimena Scenic Drive.

To learn more about this remarkable roadway, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/ARTalimena1.

Muskogee Azalea Festival's Major Weekend is Here

This one is not Civil War related (although the nearby Honey Springs Battlefield is well worth a look), but one of my favorite events in the region moves into high gear this weekend.

Saturday will be the main day for this year's Muskogee Azalea Festival in Muskogee, Oklahoma. The annual festival is one of the finest such events in the South. Honor Heights Park, where the main festival is held, will feature carriage rides, food, activities for kids and lots more this on Saturday. The park features one of the finest settings of azaleas and dogwoods you will find anywhere. They have more than 600 varieties growing in beautiful plantings that you can explore by either walking or driving.

The festival is free to explore, although various attractions like the carriage rides do charge. Some other unique events goiing on in conjunction with the festival are trolley rides through historic parts of Muskogee, an art exhibition at the Five Civilized Tribes Museum, a chili cookoff and more.

Muskogee is an easy drive from much of western Arkansas and is only an hour or so from downtown Fort Smith. If you are interested in learning more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/okmuskogeeazalea.

Fort Gibson Historic Site - Fort Gibson, Oklahoma

Although it is located across the line in eastern Oklahoma, historic Fort Gibson played a major role in the Civil War in Arkansas.

The old fort near Muskogee was the base for operations against Fort Smith in 1863, a campaign that resulted in the occupation of the Fort Smith area by Union troops and the Battle of Devil's Backbone.

After Federal troops occupied Fort Smith, the two installations were closely linked. Soldiers and supplies constantly moved back and forth between the forts, and in the process often provided tempting and easy targets for Confederate forces. General Stand Watie, for example, targeted steamboat traffic between the two forts with great success in 1864.

Union troops went to extraordinary steps to defend Fort Gibson during the war. The encampments were surrounded with strong earthworks, a small portion of which can still be seen at the historic site. They also launched an attack that led to the Battle of Honey Springs during the summer of 1863 in an effort to defend the post against a rumored Confederate attack.

If you would like to learn more about this historic fort, which was a major installation on the Oklahoma frontier for much of the 19th century, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/okfortgibson.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Conclusion

This is the interpretive shelter in the memorial area at Honey Springs Battlefield State Park.

The battle was a decisive Union victory. Confederate losses were about twice those of the Federals, which were reported at 75 killed and wounded. Considering the severity of the fight and number of men engaged, however, casualties were not excessive.

Cooper also reported that he was able to remove most of his critical supplies from the field before retreating, although some flour, sugar and other items were burned.

General Blunt's army occupied the battlefield after the fight and buried the dead. The next day they returned to Fort Gibson (Blunt), citing lack of ammunition and supplies necessary for further pursuit of the Confederates. Cooper withdraw south to North Fork Town.

The Battle of Honey Springs opened the way for Blunt's capture of Fort Smith later that same summer. Any hopes that the Confederates held of recapturing Fort Gibson and driving the Federals out of Oklahoma ended along the banks of Elk Creek, making the battle one of the most strategic of the war in Indian Territory.

The site of the fighting is now preserved at Honey Springs Battlefield State Park just north of Checotah, Oklahoma. A fairly new park, it offers interpretive trails and a tour road as well as a small visitor center, memorial area and picnic tables. There are no camping facilities at the park.

Our new Battle of Honey Springs pages are now active, so for more information please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/honeysprings1.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Thirteen

This is the monument area at the southern end of the Honey Springs Battlefield. Memorials here honor soldiers of both sides and all races.

The monuments stand on the slope of a ridge near the site of the Honey Springs Depot. This entire area was a massive Confederate supply center at the time of the battle. General Cooper was gathering material here for his planned move north against the Federals at Fort Gibson (Blunt) and elsewhere in the region.

As the Federals pushed south, fighting the resisting Confederates, Cooper ordered the supplies that could be removed quickly taken out and the rest of them burned. Union eyewitnesses reported seeing massive clouds of smoke rising over the depot as they fought their way across the battlefield.

Realizing that the battle was lost, General Cooper finally ended the fighting and pulled his men from the battlefield. Instead of retreating south as expected, he moved his men east, believing that this might slow any Federal pursuit by creating the ruse that he was moving to effect a junction with reinforcements coming up from Fort Smith.

The Union force, however, was exhausted from its long march down from Fort Gibson and the day of fighting. General Blunt ordered his men to take up positions on the battlefield for the night and, other than occasional skirmish fire, the fighting came to a close.

Our series on the Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma, will continue.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Twelve

As the Confederates were driven back from the ground along Elk Creek, General Cooper made one last effort to stop the oncoming Federals.

Forming the 1st Choctaw and Chickasaw Regiment on this ridge near the southern end of the battlefield, Cooper attacked the Union forces as they approached down the Texas Road:

The Choctaw, under Colonel Walker, opportunely arrived at this time, and under my personal direction charged the enemy, who had now planted a battery upon the tibered ridge about 1,000 yards north of Honey Springs. With their usual intrepidity, the Choctaws went at them, giving the war-whoop, and succeeded in checking the advance of the enemy until their force could be concentrated and all brought up.

The charge by the Choctaw and Chickasaw soldiers was particularly brave when it is noted that they were armed with some of the worst weapons used during the war. A report the following year indicated that many of their guns would barely fire and were almost useless in battle. At Honey Springs their ammunition also failed them. Dampened from weather conditions, few Confederates could even fire their guns by this time of the battle and the Choctaw and Chickasaw charged into the face of well armed Union troops with virtually no ability to return fire.

Discouraged by the state of their arms and ammunition, the Native American soldiers withdrew ahead of the now reformed Union forces and provided cover for the rear of Cooper's column as it withdrew from the battlefield.

Our series on the Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma, will continue.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Eleven

This view was taken at the Honey Springs Battlefield on the south side of Elk Creek.

The open ground in the photograph is what remains of the old causeway that led up to the Civil War bridge. The bridge itself began just beyond the signs visible here. The green trees in the background are actually on the opposite side of the creek.

This was the critical objective of the Battle of Honey Springs. As the Confederates fell back from their main position north of the creek, holding the bridge became vital if they hoped to beat back the Union assault and defend their stockpiles of supplies at Honey Springs Depot. For the Federal forces, seizing the bridge intact provided them with control of the Texas Road and access to those some supplies.

Despite an intense fight, the shattered Confederate lines could not hold the bridge. General Cooper ordered a withdrawal and Union troops stormed across the bridge and onto the causeway visible here, pushing Southern soldiers back ahead of them.

The focus of the battle now shifted to the south side of Elk Creek.

Our series on the Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma, will continue.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Ten

This is a view of Elk Creek from the Civil War bridge site on the Honey Springs battlefield.

As the main Confederate line crumbled, the bridge and two adjacent fords became critical objectives for the attacking Union forces. Southern troops waged a fierce fight for control of the crossings and heavy fighting took place along the northern (left) bank of the creek here.

By this stage of the battle, however, things were going badly for the Confederate defenders. Once his main line broke, General Cooper was not able to put enough men into position fast enough to hold back the Union advance. The battle degenerated into more of a fighting retreat as Southern officers tried to hold back Blunt's oncoming force long enough to withdraw most of their men across Elk Creek and save or destroy their stockpiles of supplies to the rear at Honey Springs Depot.

The bridge over Elk Creek no longer stands, but an interpretive trail leads from the tour road to the remains of the earthen causeway that led to the wooden bridge. The area is heavily wooded and a series of interpretive panels help visitors understand the nature of the fighting in the vicinity.

Our series on the Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma, will continue.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Nine

As their main line of battle began to collapse, the Confederates started to fall back to the bridge and adjacent fords over Elk Creek.

Heavy fighting took place on the north side of the Creek as the Confederates took advantage of high ground overlooking the bridge in an effort to slow the Union advance. The stand was briefly successful, but the Union attack was now irresistable and the hard-fighting Southern troops began to fall back toward the bridge.

As the Union forces pushed their way forward to the northern banks of the creek, General Cooper ordered his men to make a last ditch effort to defend the fords and bridge. The situation, however, was beyond his control. The Confederates continued to fight, "desperately contesting every foot of ground," but the Federal advance could not be stopped.

Our series will continue.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Eight

This view shows the trace of the old Texas Road at the point it crossed through the center of the primary Confederate lines during the Battle of Honey Springs.

Eyewitness accounts indicate that the battle raged along this position for about two hours until a bizarre series of events determined the outcome of the day.

According to Union reports, the 1st Kansas Volunteer Infantry (Colored), an African American regiment, was heavily engaged with the center of the Confederate line when suddenly a unit to its right, the 2nd Indian Home Guards made an incorrect adjustment of their line and moved in front of the infantrymen from Kansas. The commander of the Kansas regiment ordered his men to hold their fire until the 2nd Indian could be moved back into a proper position.

The Confederates saw this movement and, mistakenly, thought the Union lines were beginning to retreat. Colonel Bass, commanding the 20th and 29th Texas Cavalry regiments (dismounted), ordered his men to charge. As the Southern troops came storming out of their covered position, they charged right into the face of the loaded muskets of the 1st Kansas. The Union infantrymen fired a volley literally into the face of the charging Texans, shattering their attack and forcing them back.

This caused the center of the Confederate line to bow or bend backwards, leading the men on the right of Cooper's line to believe they were unsupported. As a result, the Confederate right flank began a withdrawal from its initial position. The entire Southern line collapsed and the Confederates began to stream back toward the bridge and crossings over Elk Creek, fighting as they went.

The Union troops pushed forward and an intense fight now began for control of the Texas road bridge and adjacent fords.

Our series will continue. You can also read more by visiting our site in development on the battle at www.exploresouthernhistory.com/honeysprings1.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Seven

The massive exchange of fire between the Confederates and Federals lasted, according to most eyewitnesses, for about two hours.

It was a gloomy, damp and rainy day and this impacted the Southern troops far more than their Union counterparts. The gunpowder used by the Confederates was of an inferior grade and in particular didn't work well in damp conditions. According to General Cooper's report, many of his men could not fire their weapons at all.

According to many Union eyewitnesses, the Confederates along sections of the line were so well concealed in the woods and underbrush that they could not be seen at all. Federal troops targeted their enemies by firing in the direction of the smoke given off by Southern guns.

In other areas, particularly near the center, the lines fought back and forth with astounding intensity. Confederate eyewitnesses mention driving back several Union attacks and Union eyewitnesses describe throwing back at least two Southern counterattacks.

The Confederates outnumbered the Federals on the battlefield by about 2 to 1, but the Union force had a 3 to 1 advantage in artillery (although the Confederates did possess a unique British-made rifled gun smuggled in through the blockade that fired with astounding accuracy during the battle). The Federal troops were also better armed and less subject to problems with their gunpowder. This evened the battle up considerably.

Our series will continue.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Six

This is a view of the battlefield at Honey Springs looking south from the position of the Union line of battle to the first Confederate defensive position, located in the trees at the fair end of the open prairie.

Following the opening artillery exchange, the Union line move forward across this ground at about 10 a.m. Conditions were hot and rainy.

General Blunt described the attack in his official report:

Without halting, I moved them forward in line of battle, throwing out skirmishers in advance and soon drew their fire, which revealed the location of their artillery. The cavalry, which was on the two flanks, was dismounted and fought on foot with their carbines. In a few moments the entire force was engaged. My men steadily advanced into the edge of the timber, and the fighting was unremitting and terrific for two hours....

The Confederates described the attack in much the same terms, mentioning that other than constant firing by skirmishers, the main battle line held its fire until the Union troops advanced to within 20 or so paces. At this point, the Southern troops opened with massive volleys of fire and the two forces faced each other and fought in an intense battle.

It must have been a stunning scene as thousands of men from the two sides fought for control of the trees on the edge of the open prairie. The Confederates had only four pieces of artillery when the battle began, compared to 12 guns for the Federals, and had lost one of these to accurate Union fire during the artillery exchange. In addition, their defensive effort was weakened by the absence from the field of Colonel Stand Watie, the Confederacy's noted Cherokee commander. He had been sent by General Cooper on a mission to Webber's Falls prior to the battle.

Visiting the battlefield today, it is easy to visualize the scene as it must have appeared in 1863. The ground where the Union troops formed and advanced is open and can be viewed for virtually the entire length of their battle line. The Confederate position remains wooded and probably looks very similar to its Civil War appearance.

Our series on the Battle of Honey Springs will continue.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Five

As he prepared to initiate the battle, General Blunt moved his men forward from the sheltered area where they had rested to the position that you see here.

On this ground, the Federal troops formed their line of battle.

The photograph was taken from the right flank of the Union line, looking east down the line toward the left flank. The Texas Road, a key feature for both troops, lay in the distance. The troops faced to the right of the photograph.

This position brought the two forces within artillery range of each other. The day was dark and cloudy, with General Cooper reporting that a heavy rain began to fall shortly after the battle opened at around 9 a.m. Eyewitnesses of both sides described how the artillery opened the fight.

This worked significantly to the advantage of the Federals, who had a superior number and weight of guns on the field. The Confederate infantry, formed in two lines in the trees beyond the right of this photo, were ordered to lay down on their weapons to present as limited a target as possible. The Federal infantry, according to Confederate eyewitnesses, was formed in lines four and five deep.

As the fire of the Southern cannon began to slow, Blunt ordered his troops to advance and the Battle of Honey Springs began in earnest.

Our series will continue.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Four

Pushing back Confederate pickets ahead of him, General Blunt advanced from the Arkansas River on the afternoon and evening of July 16, 1863.

There was a brief skirmish near Chimney Mountain, but no major fighting as the Federals approached Honey Springs the next morning.

The day was already hot and his men were exhausted when Blunt arrived on a ridge north of Elk Creek. Having learned of the Union advance, the Confederates formed in a wooded area (seen here), also on the north side of the creek. Cooper evidently hoped that the position would be a strong one, as his men would be sheltered by timber but would be able to fire on the Federals as they advanced over open ground. Unfortunately, it also placed the creek (with only three good crossing points) directly behind his line of battle. Any effort to retreat would likely become disorganized and fast.

The two sides were within earshot of each other as they both rested on their arms, waiting for the battle to start. After giving his men a chance to recover from the hot, grueling march, Blunt began to form his ranks for the attack.

Our series will continue.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Three

This is the memorial area at Honey Springs Battlefield State Park in Oklahoma.

Located at the southern end of the battlefield, the ridge seen here was the scene of the main Confederate supply depot prior to the battle.

Honey Springs takes its name from several small springs that rise just west of the battlefield. A pretty clear stream winds past the bottom of this hill.

At the time of the Civil War, the old Texas Road crossed the ridge. This important pioneer trail led from Missouri south across what is now Oklahoma to Texas. At the time of the war, of course, these were the Indian Nations. Honey Springs is located in the Muscogee or Creek Nation.

When he advanced north to join forces with General Cabell for a campaign against the Federals across the Arkansas River in the Cherokee Nation, General Cooper established his base at the Honey Springs Depot (or stopping point) on the Texas Road. Thousands of Confederate soldiers camped around the base and supplies were accumulated here for the coming campaign.

Our series on the Battle of Honey Springs will continue.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part Two

This photograph shows all that remains of what was once a massive system of earthworks built by the Union army in 1863 to protect their base at Fort Gibson.

Called Fort Blunt, after General Blunt, by the Federals, the extensive earthen walls surrounded an extensive post area adjacent to the old Fort Gibson that had been built by the U.S. Army prior to the Trail of Tears.

Most of the vast fortification no longer exists, but this small section of earthwork can still be seen at the Oklahoma Historical Society's Fort Gibson Historic Site. The surviving earthworks are located down the hill from the Visitor's Center and were once part of the southwest wall of the irregular fort.

General Blunt was here when he learned that Cooper's force had taken up a position at Honey Springs Depot on the Texas Road. Cooper was waiting for the arrival of additional forces from Fort Smith under General Cabell before moving north in a campaign against the Federals at Fort Blunt. Deciding to strike before the two Confederate generals could unite their forces, Blunt moved out from his fortifications.

As our series continues tomorrow, we will look at the Confederate position at Honey Springs Depot. As the week goes along, we will also be launching our full site on the Battle of Honey Springs at www.exploresouthernhistory.com/honeysprings1.

Battle of Honey Springs, Oklahoma - Part One

On July 17, 1863, Union and Confederate forces engaged in a fierce battle along Elk Creek, a sluggish stream that flows through the Creek or Muscogee Nation in Oklahoma.

Sometimes called the "Gettysburg of the West," the engagement is known today as the Battle of Honey Springs or Elk Creek and was a dramatic Union victory that changed the course of the war in the West.

The battle took place when Union General James Blunt, suffering with fever, learned that a Confederate army was assembling at Honey Springs Depot on the Texas Road near present-day Checotah. Then at Fort Gibson (called Fort Blunt by Union forces), Blunt decided to strike the General Douglas H. Cooper's gathering Confederate force before the Southern general could move against his own command.

The result was one of the more dramatic rapid campaigns of the Civil War. Blunt moved 3,000 men and 12 pieces of artillery across the swollen Arkansas River, drove back Confederate pickets and slammed into Cooper's main force at Elk Creek.

The battle was unique because the forces of both sides were multi-racial in nature. Blunt's command included white, Native American and African American soldiers, while Cooper's force included both white and Native American troops.

As our series continues tomorrow, we will begin to retrace the Honey Springs campaign with a look at Blunt's command post at Fort Gibson (Blunt).